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<title>Compact disc</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Compact disc</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"CD" and "CDs" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="CD_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="CD (disambiguation)">CD (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="CDS_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="CDS (disambiguation)">CDS (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 'audio CD' specifically, see <a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Compact disc</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">The readable surface of a compact disc is <a href="Iridescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridescent">iridescent</a> because it includes a spiral track wound tightly enough to cause light to <a href="Diffraction_grating" title="Diffraction grating">diffract</a> into a full <a href="Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capacity</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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</style><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>650‍–‍870 <a href="MiB" class="mw-redirect" title="MiB">MiB</a> data</li><li>74‍–‍99 minutes audio</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Read<span class="nowrap"> </span>mechanism</th><td class="infobox-data">780 nm <a href="Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">laser diode</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Write<span class="nowrap"> </span>mechanism</th><td class="infobox-data">780 nm laser diode</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="International_standard" title="International standard">Standard</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Rainbow_Books" title="Rainbow Books">Rainbow Books</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Developed<span class="nowrap"> </span>by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> <b>·</b> <a href="Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dimensions</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="Diameter" title="Diameter">Diameter</a>: 120 mm (4.7 in)</li><li>Thickness: 1.2 mm (0.047 in)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Usage</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="Audio_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio storage">Audio storage</a></li><li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Computer data storage</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Extended<span class="nowrap"> </span>from</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Extended<span class="nowrap"> </span>to</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">

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</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a></li><li><a href="DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">Super Audio CD</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Released</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="Japan" title="Japan">JP</a>: October 1982<span style="display: none;"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1982-10</span>)</span></li><li><a href="North_America" title="North America">NA</a>/<a href="Europe" title="Europe">EU</a>: March 1983<span style="display: none;"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1983-03</span>)</span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical discs</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left">

<ul><li><a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_drive" title="Optical disc drive">Optical disc drive</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_authoring" title="Optical disc authoring">Optical disc authoring</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_authoring#Software" title="Optical disc authoring">Authoring software</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_recording_technologies" title="Optical disc recording technologies">Recording technologies</a>

<ul><li><a href="Optical_disc_recording_modes" title="Optical disc recording modes">Recording modes</a></li>

<li><a href="Packet_writing" title="Packet writing">Packet writing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Burst_cutting_area" title="Burst cutting area">Burst cutting area</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Optical media types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left">

<ul><li><b>Compact disc ():</b> <a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">CD-DA</a>, <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a>, <a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-R</a>, <a href="CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a>, <a href="5.1_Music_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="5.1 Music Disc">5.1 Music Disc</a>, Super Audio CD (<a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">SACD</a>), <a href="Photo_CD" title="Photo CD">Photo CD</a>, CD Video (<a href="CD_Video" title="CD Video">CDV</a>), Video CD (<a href="Video_CD" title="Video CD">VCD</a>), Super Video CD (<a href="Super_Video_CD" title="Super Video CD">SVCD</a>), <a href="CD%2BG" title="CD+G">CD+G</a>, <a href="CD-Text" title="CD-Text">CD-Text</a>, <a href="CD-ROM_XA" class="mw-redirect" title="CD-ROM XA">CD-ROM XA</a>, <a href="CD-i" title="CD-i">CD-i</a>, <a href="MIL-CD" class="mw-redirect" title="MIL-CD">MIL-CD</a>, <a href="Mini_CD" title="Mini CD">Mini CD</a></li>

<li><b>Digital Versatile Disc (<a href="DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a>):</b> <a href="DVD-R" class="mw-redirect" title="DVD-R">DVD-R</a>, <a href="DVD%2BR" class="mw-redirect" title="DVD+R">DVD+R</a>, <a href="DVD-R_DL" title="DVD-R DL">DVD-R DL</a>, <a href="DVD%2BR_DL" title="DVD+R DL">DVD+R DL</a>, <a href="DVD-R_DS" title="DVD-R DS">DVD-R DS</a>, <a href="DVD%2BR_DS" title="DVD+R DS">DVD+R DS</a>, <a href="DVD-RW" class="mw-redirect" title="DVD-RW">DVD-RW</a>, <a href="DVD%2BRW" class="mw-redirect" title="DVD+RW">DVD+RW</a>, <a href="DVD-RAM" title="DVD-RAM">DVD-RAM</a>, <a href="DVD-D" title="DVD-D">DVD-D</a>, <a href="DVD-Audio" title="DVD-Audio">DVD-A</a>, <a href="DVD-Video" title="DVD-Video">DVD-Video</a>, <a href="High-Definition_Versatile_Disc" title="High-Definition Versatile Disc">HVD</a>, <a href="Flexplay" title="Flexplay">Flexplay</a>, <a href="EcoDisc" title="EcoDisc">EcoDisc</a>, <a href="MiniDVD" title="MiniDVD">MiniDVD</a></li>

<li><b>Blu-ray Disc (<a href="Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">BD</a>):</b> <a href="Blu-ray_Disc_recordable" title="Blu-ray Disc recordable">BD-R & BD-RE</a>, <a href="Blu-ray_3D" class="mw-redirect" title="Blu-ray 3D">Blu-ray 3D</a>, <a href="Blu-ray#Mini_Blu-ray_Disc" title="Blu-ray">Mini Blu-ray Disc</a>, 4K Blu-ray (<a href="Ultra_HD_Blu-ray" title="Ultra HD Blu-ray">Ultra HD Blu-ray</a>)</li>

<li><b><a href="Universal_Media_Disc" title="Universal Media Disc">Universal Media Disc (UMD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Enhanced_Versatile_Disc" title="Enhanced Versatile Disc">Enhanced Versatile Disc (EVD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Forward_Versatile_Disc" title="Forward Versatile Disc">Forward Versatile Disc (FVD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Holographic_Versatile_Disc" title="Holographic Versatile Disc">Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="China_Blue_High-definition_Disc" title="China Blue High-definition Disc">China Blue High-definition Disc (CBHD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="High-Definition_Versatile_Multilayer_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="High-Definition Versatile Multilayer Disc">High-Definition Versatile Multilayer Disc (HD VMD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="VCDHD" title="VCDHD">VCDHD</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Personal_Video_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal Video Disc">Personal Video Disc (PVD)</a></b></li>

<li><b>MiniDisc (<a href="MiniDisc" title="MiniDisc">MD</a>):</b> <a href="MD_Data" title="MD Data">MD Data, MD Data2</a></li>

<li><b>LaserDisc (<a href="LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LD</a>):</b> <a href="LD-ROM" class="mw-redirect" title="LD-ROM">LD-ROM</a>, <a href="LV-ROM" title="LV-ROM">LV-ROM</a></li>

<li><b><a href="Video_Single_Disc" title="Video Single Disc">Video Single Disc (VSD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Magneto-optical_drive" title="Magneto-optical drive">Magneto-optical discs</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Ultra_Density_Optical" title="Ultra Density Optical">Ultra Density Optical (UDO)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Stacked_Volumetric_Optical_Disc" title="Stacked Volumetric Optical Disc">Stacked Volumetric Optical Disk (SVOD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Fluorescent_Multilayer_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent Multilayer Disc">Fluorescent Multilayer Disc</a> </b></li>

<li><b><a href="Hyper_CD-ROM" title="Hyper CD-ROM">Hyper CD-ROM</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Nintendo_optical_discs" title="Nintendo optical discs">Nintendo optical disc (NOD)</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Archival_Disc" title="Archival Disc">Archival Disc</a> (AD)</b></li>

<li><b><a href="Professional_Disc" title="Professional Disc">Professional Disc</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="DataPlay" title="DataPlay">DataPlay</a></b></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Standards</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left">

<ul><li><a href="Small_Form_Factor_Committee" title="Small Form Factor Committee">SFF</a> <a href="ATA_Packet_Interface" class="mw-redirect" title="ATA Packet Interface">ATAPI</a>/<a href="SCSI_Multimedia_Commands" title="SCSI Multimedia Commands">MMC</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mount_Rainier_(packet_writing)" title="Mount Rainier (packet writing)">Mount Rainier</a> (packet writing)</li>

<li><a href="Layer_Jump_Recording" title="Layer Jump Recording">Mount Fuji</a> (layer jump recording)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rainbow_Books" title="Rainbow Books">Rainbow Books</a></li>

<li>File systems

<ul><li><a href="Joliet_(file_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joliet (file system)">Joliet</a></li>

<li><a href="Romeo_file_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Romeo file system">Romeo</a></li>

<li><a href="Rock_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock Ridge">Rock Ridge</a> / SUSP</li>

<li><a href="El_Torito_(CD-ROM_standard)" class="mw-redirect" title="El Torito (CD-ROM standard)">El Torito</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_ISO_9660_Extensions" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple ISO 9660 Extensions">Apple ISO 9660 Extensions</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Universal Disk Format (<a href="Universal_Disk_Format" title="Universal Disk Format">UDF</a>)</li>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_optical_storage_media" class="mw-redirect" title="History of optical storage media">History of optical storage media</a></li>

<li><a href="High-definition_optical_disc_format_war" title="High-definition optical disc format war">High-definition optical disc format war</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<p>The <b>compact disc</b> (<b>CD</b>) is a <a href="Digital_media" title="Digital media">digital</a> <a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical disc</a> <a href="Data_storage" title="Data storage">data storage</a> format co-developed by <a href="Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> and <a href="Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> to store and play <a href="Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">digital audio</a> recordings. It employs the <a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio</a> (CD-DA) standard and is capable of holding of uncompressed <a href="Stereo" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereo">stereo</a> audio. First released in <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> in October 1982, the CD was the second optical disc format to reach the market, following the larger <a href="LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a> (LD). In later years, the technology was adapted for computer data storage as <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> (The type of disc used for the <a href="Playstation" class="mw-redirect" title="Playstation">Playstation</a>), and subsequently expanded into various writable and multimedia formats. As of 2007, over 200 billion CDs (including audio CDs, CD-ROMs, and <a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-Rs</a>) had been sold worldwide.

</p><p>Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres (4.7 inches) and typically hold up to 74 minutes of audio or approximately <span class="nowrap">650</span> <a href="Mebibyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Mebibyte">MiB</a> (<span class="nowrap">681,574,400</span> bytes) of data. This was later regularly extended to 80 minutes or <span class="nowrap">700</span> MiB (<span class="nowrap">734,003,200</span> bytes) by reducing the spacing between data tracks, with some discs unofficially reaching up to 99 minutes or <span class="nowrap">870</span> MiB (<span class="nowrap">912,261,120</span> bytes) which falls outside established specifications. Smaller variants, such as the <a href="Mini_CD" title="Mini CD">Mini CD</a>, range from 60 to 80 millimetres (2.4 to 3.1 in) in diameter and have been used for <a href="CD_single" title="CD single">CD singles</a> or distributing <a href="Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a> and software.

</p><p>The CD gained widespread popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s. By 1991, it had surpassed the <a href="Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">phonograph record</a> and the <a href="Compact_cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact cassette">cassette tape</a> in sales in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, becoming the dominant physical audio format. By 2000, CDs accounted for 92.3% of the U.S. music market share.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CD is widely regarded as the final dominant format of the <a href="Album_era" title="Album era">album era</a>, before the rise of <a href="MP3" title="MP3">MP3</a>, <a href="Music_download" title="Music download">digital downloads</a>, and <a href="Music_streaming_service" title="Music streaming service">streaming platforms</a> in the mid-2000s led to its decline.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Beyond audio playback, the compact disc was adapted for general-purpose data storage under the <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> format, which initially offered more capacity than contemporary personal computer <a href="Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">hard disk drives</a>. Additional derived formats include write-once discs (<a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-R</a>), rewritable media (<a href="CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a>), and multimedia applications such as <a href="Video_CD" title="Video CD">Video CD</a> (VCD), <a href="Super_Video_CD" title="Super Video CD">Super Video CD</a> (SVCD), <a href="Photo_CD" title="Photo CD">Photo CD</a>, <a href="Picture_CD" title="Picture CD">Picture CD</a>, <a href="CD-i" title="CD-i">Compact Disc Interactive</a> (CD-i), <a href="Enhanced_Music_CD" class="mw-redirect" title="Enhanced Music CD">Enhanced Music CD</a>, and <a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">Super Audio CD</a> (SACD), the latter of which can include a standard CD-DA layer for <a href="Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">backward compatibility</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio#History" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio § History</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p>The <a href="Optophone" title="Optophone">optophone</a>, first presented in 1913, was an early device that used light for both recording and playback of sound signals on a <a href="Negative_(photography)" title="Negative (photography)">transparent photograph</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than thirty years later, American inventor <a href="James_Russell_(inventor)" title="James Russell (inventor)">James T. Russell</a> has been credited with inventing the first system to record digital media on a photosensitive plate. Russell's patent application was filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following litigation, <a href="Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> and <a href="Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> licensed Russell's patents for recording in 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is debatable whether Russell's concepts, patents, and prototypes instigated and in some measure influenced the compact disc's design.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The compact disc is an evolution of <a href="LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a> technology,<sup id="cite_ref-Immink_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Immink-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where a focused <a href="Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Unlike the prior art by Optophonie and James Russell, the information on the disc is read from a reflective layer using a laser as a light source through a protective substrate. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although originally dismissed by <a href="Philips_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Philips Research">Philips Research</a> management as a trivial pursuit,<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Immink2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Immink2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the <a href="LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a> format struggled.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AndItsEnd_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AndItsEnd-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the <i><a href="Rainbow_Books" title="Rainbow Books">Red Book</a></i> CD-DA standard was published in 1980. After their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1988, CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and, by 1992, CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music-cassette tapes.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The success of the compact disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, which together agreed upon and developed compatible hardware. The unified design of the compact disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company and allowed the CD to dominate the at-home music market unchallenged.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_audio_laser-disc_prototypes">Digital audio laser-disc prototypes</h3></div>

<p>In 1974, Lou Ottens, director of the audio division of Philips, started a small group to develop an analog optical audio disc with a diameter of 20 cm (7.9 in) and a sound quality superior to that of the vinyl record.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, due to the unsatisfactory performance of the analog format, two Philips research engineers recommended a digital format in March 1974. In 1977, Philips then established a laboratory with the mission of creating a digital audio disc. The diameter of Philips's prototype compact disc was set at 11.5 cm (4.5 in), the diagonal of an audio cassette.<sup id="cite_ref-Immink_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Immink-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-peek_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peek-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Heitaro_Nakajima" title="Heitaro Nakajima">Heitaro Nakajima</a>, who developed an early digital audio recorder within Japan's national public broadcasting organization, <a href="NHK" title="NHK">NHK</a>, in 1970, became general manager of Sony's audio department in 1971. In 1973, his team developed a digital <a href="PCM_adaptor" title="PCM adaptor">PCM adaptor</a> that made audio recordings using a <a href="Betamax" title="Betamax">Betamax</a> video recorder. After this, in 1974 the leap to storing digital audio on an optical disc was easily made.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sony first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. A year later, in September 1977, Sony showed the press a 30 cm (12 in) disc that could play an hour of digital audio (44,100 Hz sampling rate and 16-bit resolution) using <a href="Modified_frequency_modulation" title="Modified frequency modulation">modified frequency modulation</a> encoding.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_SonyHistorical_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_SonyHistorical-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In September 1978, Sony demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150-minute playing time, 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16-bit linear resolution, and <a href="Cross-interleaved_Reed-Solomon_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-interleaved Reed-Solomon coding">cross-interleaved Reed-Solomon coding</a> (CIRC) <a href="Error_correction_code" title="Error correction code">error correction code</a>—specifications similar to those later settled upon for the standard compact disc format in 1980. Technical details of Sony's digital audio disc were presented during the 62nd <a href="Audio_Engineering_Society" title="Audio Engineering Society">AES</a> Convention, held on 13–16 March 1979, in <a href="Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SonyHistorical_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SonyHistorical-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sony's AES technical paper was published on 1 March 1979. A week later, on 8 March, Philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called "Philips Introduce Compact Disc"<sup id="cite_ref-BBC6950933_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC6950933-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="Eindhoven" title="Eindhoven">Eindhoven</a>, Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_PhilipsHistorical_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_PhilipsHistorical-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sony executive <a href="Norio_Ohga" title="Norio Ohga">Norio Ohga</a>, later CEO and chairman of Sony, and <a href="Heitaro_Nakajima" title="Heitaro Nakajima">Heitaro Nakajima</a> were convinced of the format's commercial potential and pushed further development despite widespread skepticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Ohgaobituary_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Ohgaobituary-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaboration_and_standardization">Collaboration and standardization</h3></div>

<p>In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. Led by engineers <a href="Kees_Schouhamer_Immink" title="Kees Schouhamer Immink">Kees Schouhamer Immink</a> and <a href="Toshitada_Doi" title="Toshitada Doi">Toshitada Doi</a>, the research pushed forward <a href="Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> and <a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical disc</a> technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_BBC6950933_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_BBC6950933-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a year of experimentation and discussion, the task force produced the <i>Red Book</i> CD-DA standard. First published in 1980, the standard was formally adopted by the <a href="IEC" class="mw-redirect" title="IEC">IEC</a> as an international standard in 1987, with various amendments becoming part of the standard in 1996.

</p><p>Philips coined the term <i>compact disc</i> in line with another audio product, the <a href="Compact_Cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Cassette">Compact Cassette</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_peek_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_peek-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and contributed the general manufacturing <a href="Industrial_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial process">process</a>, based on video LaserDisc technology. Philips also contributed <a href="Eight-to-fourteen_modulation" title="Eight-to-fourteen modulation">eight-to-fourteen modulation</a> (EFM), while Sony contributed the <a href="Error-correction" class="mw-redirect" title="Error-correction">error-correction</a> method, CIRC, which offers resilience to defects such as scratches and fingerprints.

</p><p><i>The Compact Disc Story</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Immink_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Immink-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> told by a former member of the task force, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc diameter. The task force consisted of around 6 persons,<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Immink2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Immink2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Knopper_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Knopper-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though according to Philips, the compact disc was "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team".<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_PhilDoss_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_PhilDoss-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_launch_and_adoption">Initial launch and adoption</h3></div>

<p>Early milestones in the launch and adoption of the format included:

</p>

<ul><li>The first <i>test pressing</i> was of a recording of <a href="Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Richard Strauss</a>'s <i><a href="An_Alpine_Symphony" title="An Alpine Symphony">An Alpine Symphony</a></i>, recorded December 1–3, 1980 and played by the <a href="Berlin_Philharmonic" title="Berlin Philharmonic">Berlin Philharmonic</a> and conducted by <a href="Herbert_von_Karajan" title="Herbert von Karajan">Herbert von Karajan</a>, who had been enlisted as an ambassador for the format in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Karajan_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Karajan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The world presentation took place during the <a href="Salzburg_Easter_Festival" title="Salzburg Easter Festival">Salzburg Easter Festival</a> on 15 April 1981, at a press conference of <a href="Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a> and Norio Ohga (Sony), Joop van Tilburg (Philips), and Richard Busch (PolyGram), in the presence of Karajan who praised the new format.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The first <i>public demonstration</i> was on the <a href="BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> television programme <i><a href="Tomorrow's_World" title="Tomorrow's World">Tomorrow's World</a></i> in 1981, when the <a href="Bee_Gees" title="Bee Gees">Bee Gees</a>' album <i><a href="Living_Eyes_(Bee_Gees_album)" title="Living Eyes (Bee Gees album)">Living Eyes</a></i> (1981) was played.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-4_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-4-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The first <i>commercial</i> compact disc was produced on 17 August 1982, a 1979 recording of <a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a> waltzes performed by <a href="Claudio_Arrau" title="Claudio Arrau">Claudio Arrau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The first 50 titles were <i>released</i> in Japan on 1 October 1982,<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-6_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-6-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first of which was a re-release of <a href="Billy_Joel" title="Billy Joel">Billy Joel</a>'s 1978 album <i><a href="52nd_Street_(album)" title="52nd Street (album)">52nd Street</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The first CD played on BBC Radio was in October 1982.</li>

<li>The Japanese launch was followed on 14 March 1983 by the introduction of CD players and discs to Europe<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and North America where CBS Records released sixteen titles.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_G&M_1983-03-05_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_G&M_1983-03-05-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>The first artist to sell a million copies on CD was <a href="Dire_Straits" title="Dire Straits">Dire Straits</a>, with their 1985 album <i><a href="Brothers_in_Arms_(album)" title="Brothers in Arms (album)">Brothers in Arms</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-7_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-7-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first CD markets was devoted to reissuing popular music whose commercial potential was already proven. The first major artist to have their entire catalog converted to CD was <a href="David_Bowie" title="David Bowie">David Bowie</a>, whose first fourteen studio albums (up to <i><a href="Scary_Monsters_(and_Super_Creeps)" title="Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)">Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)</a></i>) of (then) sixteen were made available by <a href="RCA_Records" title="RCA Records">RCA Records</a> in February 1985, along with four greatest hits albums; his fifteenth and sixteenth albums (<i><a href="Let's_Dance_(David_Bowie_album)" title="Let's Dance (David Bowie album)">Let's Dance</a></i> and <i><a href="Tonight_(David_Bowie_album)" title="Tonight (David Bowie album)">Tonight</a></i>, respectively) had already been issued on CD by <a href="EMI_Records" title="EMI Records">EMI Records</a> in 1983 and 1984, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-8_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-8-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 26 February 1987, the first four UK albums by <a href="The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">the Beatles</a> were released in mono on compact disc.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_BeatlesCD_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_BeatlesCD-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The growing acceptance of the CD in 1983 marked the beginning of the popular digital audio revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was enthusiastically received, especially in the early-adopting <a href="Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a> and <a href="Audiophile" title="Audiophile">audiophile</a> communities, and its handling quality received particular praise. As the price of players gradually came down, and with the introduction of the portable <a href="Discman" title="Discman">Discman</a>, the CD began to gain popularity in the larger popular and rock music markets. With the rise in CD sales, pre-recorded <a href="Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">cassette tape</a> sales began to decline in the late 1980s; CD sales overtook cassette sales in the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1988, 400 million CDs were manufactured by 50 pressing plants around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-9_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-9-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_development">Further development</h3></div>

<p>Early CD players employed binary-weighted <a href="Digital-to-analog_converter" title="Digital-to-analog converter">digital-to-analog converters</a> (DAC), which contained individual electrical components for each bit of the DAC.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even when using high-precision components, this approach was prone to decoding errors.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another issue was <a href="Jitter" title="Jitter">jitter</a>, a time-related defect. Confronted with the instability of DACs, manufacturers initially turned to increasing the number of bits in the DAC and using several DACs per audio channel, averaging their output.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increased the cost of CD players but did not solve the core problem.

</p><p>A breakthrough in the late 1980s culminated in development of the <a href="Delta-sigma_modulation#Digital-to-analog_conversion" title="Delta-sigma modulation">1-bit DAC</a>, which converts high-resolution low-frequency digital input signal into a lower-resolution high-frequency signal that is mapped to voltages and then smoothed with an analog filter. The temporary use of a lower-resolution signal simplified circuit design and improved efficiency, which is why it became dominant in CD players starting from the early 1990s. Philips used a variation of this technique called <a href="Pulse-density_modulation" title="Pulse-density modulation">pulse-density modulation</a> (PDM),<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-198906-Atkinson_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-198906-Atkinson-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Matsushita (now <a href="Panasonic" title="Panasonic">Panasonic</a>) chose <a href="Pulse-width_modulation" title="Pulse-width modulation">pulse-width modulation</a> (PWM), advertising it as MASH, which is an acronym derived from their patented Multi-stAge noiSe-sHaping PWM topology.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_stereophile-19890501-Willenswaard-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The CD was primarily planned as the successor to the <a href="Vinyl_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinyl record">vinyl record</a> for playing music, rather than as a data storage medium. However, CDs have grown to encompass other applications. In 1983, following the CD's introduction, Immink and <a href="Joseph_Braat" title="Joseph Braat">Joseph Braat</a> presented the first experiments with erasable compact discs during the 73rd <a href="AES_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="AES Convention">AES Convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1985, the computer-readable <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> (read-only memory) and, in 1990, recordable <a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-R</a> discs were introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recordable CDs became an alternative to tape for recording and distributing music and could be duplicated without degradation in sound quality.

</p><p>Other newer video formats such as <a href="DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a> and <a href="Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a> use the same physical geometry as CD, and most DVD and Blu-ray players are <a href="Backward_compatible" class="mw-redirect" title="Backward compatible">backward compatible</a> with audio CDs.

</p>

<p>CD sales in the United States peaked by 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_statista_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_statista-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 2000s, the CD player had largely replaced the <a href="Audio_cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio cassette">audio cassette</a> player as standard equipment in new automobiles, with 2010 being the final model year for any car in the United States to have a factory-equipped cassette player.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_nyt20120718_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_nyt20120718-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Two new formats were marketed in the 2000s designed as successors to the CD: the <a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">Super Audio CD</a> (SACD) and <a href="DVD-Audio" title="DVD-Audio">DVD-Audio</a>. However neither of these were adopted partly due to increased relevance of digital (virtual) music and the apparent lack of audible improvements in audio quality to most human ears.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These effectively extended the CD's longevity in the music market.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div>

<p>With the advent and popularity of <a href="Digital_distribution" title="Digital distribution">Internet-based distribution</a> of files in <a href="Lossy_compression" title="Lossy compression">lossy-compressed</a> <a href="Audio_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio format">audio formats</a> such as <a href="MP3" title="MP3">MP3</a>, sales of CDs began to decline in the 2000s. For example, between 2000 and 2008, despite overall growth in music sales and one anomalous year of increase, major-label CD sales declined overall by 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-11_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AutoMR-11-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite rapidly declining sales year-over-year, the pervasiveness of the technology lingered for a time, with companies placing CDs in pharmacies, supermarkets, and filling station convenience stores to target buyers less likely to be able to use Internet-based distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AndItsEnd_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_AndItsEnd-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 2012, CDs and DVDs made up only 34% of music sales in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2015, only 24% of music in the United States was purchased on physical media, two thirds of this consisting of CDs;<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, in the same year in Japan, over 80% of music was bought on CDs and other physical formats.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, U.S. CD sales were 52 million units—less than 6% of the peak sales volume in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_statista_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_statista-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the UK, 32 million units were sold, almost 100 million fewer than in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, <a href="Best_Buy" title="Best Buy">Best Buy</a> announced plans to decrease their focus on CD sales, however, while continuing to sell records, sales of which are growing during the <a href="Vinyl_revival" title="Vinyl revival">vinyl revival</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_bestverge_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_bestverge-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During the 2010s, the increasing popularity of solid-state media and music streaming services caused automakers to remove automotive CD players in favor of <a href="Minijack" class="mw-redirect" title="Minijack">minijack</a> auxiliary inputs, wired connections to USB devices and wireless <a href="Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a> connections.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Biersdorfer_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Biersdorfer-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Automakers viewed CD players as using up valuable space and taking up weight which could be reallocated to more popular features, like large touchscreens.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Ramey_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Ramey-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2021, only <a href="Lexus" title="Lexus">Lexus</a> and <a href="General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> were still including CD players as standard equipment with certain vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Ramey_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_Ramey-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_status">Current status</h3></div>

<p>CDs continued to be strong in some markets such as Japan where 132 million units were produced in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The decline in CD sales has slowed in recent years; in 2021, CD sales increased in the US for the first time since 2004,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="Axios_(website)" title="Axios (website)">Axios</a> citing its rise to "young people who are finding they like hard copies of music in the digital age".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It came at the same time as both vinyl and cassette reached sales levels not seen in 30 years.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Recording_Industry_Association_of_America" title="Recording Industry Association of America">RIAA</a> reported that CD revenue made a dip in 2022, before increasing again in 2023 and overtook downloading for the first time in over a decade.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the US, 33.4 million CD albums were sold in the year 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="France" title="France">France</a> in 2023, 10.5 million CDs were sold, almost double that of vinyl, but both of them represented generated 12% each of the French music industry revenues.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Awards_and_accolades">Awards and accolades</h3></div>

<p>Sony and Philips received praise for the development of the compact disc from professional organizations. These awards include:

</p>

<ul><li>Technical <a href="Grammy_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammy Award">Grammy Award</a> for Sony and Philips, 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_grammy_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_grammy-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a> Milestone award, 2009, for Philips alone with the citation: "On 8 March 1979, N.V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken demonstrated for the international press a Compact Disc Audio Player. The demonstration showed that it is possible by using digital optical recording and playback to reproduce audio signals with superb stereo quality. This research at Philips established the technical standard for digital optical recording systems."<sup id="cite_ref-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_IEEE_CD_Milestone_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio_IEEE_CD_Milestone-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_details">Physical details</h2></div>

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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Shaped_compact_disc" title="Shaped compact disc">Shaped compact disc</a></div>

<p>A CD is made from 1.2-millimetre (0.047 in) thick, <a href="Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonate</a> plastic, and weighs 14–33 grams.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the center outward, components are: the center spindle hole (15 mm), the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the program (data) area, and the rim. The inner program area occupies a radius from 25 to 58 mm.

</p><p>A thin layer of <a href="Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a> or, more rarely, <a href="Gold_compact_disc" title="Gold compact disc">gold</a> is applied to the surface, making it reflective. The metal is protected by a film of lacquer normally <a href="Spin_coated" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin coated">spin coated</a> directly on the reflective layer. The label is printed on the lacquer layer, usually by <a href="Screen_printing" title="Screen printing">screen printing</a> or <a href="Offset_printing" title="Offset printing">offset printing</a>.

</p>

<p>CD data is represented as tiny indentations known as <i>pits</i>, encoded in a spiral track molded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits are known as <i>lands</i>. Each pit is approximately 100 <a href="Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a> deep by 500 nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 <a href="%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a> in length.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distance between the windings (the <i>pitch</i>) is 1.6 μm (measured center-to-center, not between the edges).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IEC908_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEC908-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IEC10149_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEC10149-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>When playing an audio CD, a motor within the CD player spins the disc to a scanning velocity of 1.2–1.4 m/s (<a href="Constant_linear_velocity" title="Constant linear velocity">constant linear velocity</a>, CLV)—equivalent to approximately 500 RPM at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 RPM at the outside edge.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The track on the CD begins at the inside and spirals outward so a disc played from beginning to end slows its rotation rate during playback.

</p>

<p>The program area is 86.05 cm<sup>2</sup> and the length of the recordable spiral is <span class="nowrap">86.05 cm<sup>2</sup> / 1.6 μm =</span> <span class="nowrap">5.38 km.</span> With a scanning speed of 1.2 m/s, the playing time is 74 minutes or 650 MiB of data on a CD-ROM. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of 1.2 m/s and a narrower track pitch of 1.5 μm increases the playing time to 80 minutes, and data capacity to 700 MiB. Even denser tracks are possible, with semi-standard 90 minute/800 MiB discs having 1.33 μm, and 99 minute/870 MiB having 1.26 μm,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but compatibility suffers as density increases.

</p>

<p>A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm <a href="Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> (<a href="Near_infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Near infrared">near infrared</a>) <a href="Semiconductor_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor laser">semiconductor laser</a> (early players used <a href="Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser" title="Helium–neon laser">He‍–‍Ne laser</a><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference in the way the light is reflected. Because the pits are indented into the top layer of the disc and are read through the transparent polycarbonate base, the pits form bumps when read.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laser hits the disc, casting a circle of light wider than the modulated spiral track reflecting partially from the lands and partially from the top of any bumps where they are present. As the laser passes over a pit (bump), its height means that the round trip path of the light reflected from its peak is 1/2 wavelength out of phase with the light reflected from the land around it. This is because the height of a bump is around 1/4 of the wavelength of the light used, so the light falls 1/4 out of phase before reflection and another 1/4 wavelength out of phase after reflection. This causes partial <a href="Wave_interference" title="Wave interference">cancellation</a> of the laser's reflection from the surface. By measuring the reflected intensity change with a <a href="Photodiode" title="Photodiode">photodiode</a>, a modulated signal is read back from the disc.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>To accommodate the spiral pattern of data, the laser is placed on a mobile mechanism within the disc tray of any CD player. This mechanism typically takes the form of a sled that moves along a rail. The sled can be driven by a <a href="Worm_gear" class="mw-redirect" title="Worm gear">worm gear</a> or <a href="Linear_motor" title="Linear motor">linear motor</a>. Where a worm gear is used, a second shorter-throw linear motor, in the form of a coil and magnet, makes fine position adjustments to track eccentricities in the disk at high speed. Some CD drives (particularly those manufactured by Philips during the 1980s and early 1990s) use a swing arm similar to that seen on a gramophone.

</p>

<p>The pits and lands do <i>not</i> directly represent the 0s and 1s of <a href="Binary_data" title="Binary data">binary data</a>. Instead, <a href="Non-return-to-zero%2C_inverted" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-return-to-zero, inverted">non-return-to-zero, inverted</a> encoding is used: a change from either pit to land or land to pit indicates a 1, while no change indicates a series of 0s. There must be at least two, and no more than ten 0s between each 1, which is defined by the length of the pit. This, in turn, is decoded by reversing the <a href="Eight-to-fourteen_modulation" title="Eight-to-fourteen modulation">eight-to-fourteen modulation</a> used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the <a href="Cross-interleaved_Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_coding" title="Cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding">cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding</a>, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc. These encoding techniques (defined in the <i><a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio#Data_encoding" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Red Book</a></i>) were originally designed for <a href="CD_Digital_Audio" class="mw-redirect" title="CD Digital Audio">CD Digital Audio</a>, but they later became a standard for almost all CD formats (such as <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a>).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrity">Integrity</h3></div>

<p>CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs are more likely to suffer damage on the label side of the disc. Scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing. The edges of CDs are sometimes incompletely sealed, allowing gases and liquids to enter the CD and corrode the metal reflective layer and/or interfere with the focus of the laser on the pits, a condition known as <a href="Disc_rot" title="Disc rot">disc rot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-clir_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clir-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fungus <i><a href="Geotrichum_candidum" title="Geotrichum candidum">Geotrichum candidum</a></i> has been found—under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate plastic and aluminium found in CDs.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Data_integrity" title="Data integrity">data integrity</a> of compact discs can be measured using <a href="Optical_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical Disc">surface error scanning</a>, which can measure the rates of different types of data errors, known as <i>C1</i>, <i><a href="C2_error" title="C2 error">C2</a></i>, <i>CU</i> and extended (finer-grain) error measurements known as <i>E11</i>, <i>E12</i>, <i>E21</i>, <i>E22</i>, <i>E31</i> and <i>E32</i>, of which higher rates indicate a possibly damaged or unclean data surface, low media quality, <a href="Disc_rot" title="Disc rot">deteriorating media</a> and <a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">recordable media</a> written to by a malfunctioning <a href="CD_writer" class="mw-redirect" title="CD writer">CD writer</a>.

</p><p>Error scanning can reliably predict data losses caused by media deterioration. Support of error scanning differs between vendors and models of <a href="Optical_disc_drive#Appliances" title="Optical disc drive">optical disc drives</a>, and <i>extended</i> error scanning (known as <i>"advanced error scanning"</i> in <a href="Nero_DiscSpeed" class="mw-redirect" title="Nero DiscSpeed">Nero DiscSpeed</a>) which reports the six aforementioned E-type errors has only been available on <a href="Plextor#Optical_drives" title="Plextor">Plextor</a> and some <a href="BenQ" title="BenQ">BenQ</a> optical drives so far, as of 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-gleitz_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gleitz-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-qpx-g_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qpx-g-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disc_shapes_and_diameters">Disc shapes and diameters</h3></div>

<p>The digital data on a CD begins at the inside near the spindle hole and spirals outward toward the edge in a single track. The outward spiral allows adaptation to different-sized discs. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far, the most common is 120 millimetres (4.7 in) in diameter, with a 74-, 80, 90, or 99-minute audio capacity and a 650, 700, 800, or 870 MiB (737,280,000-byte) data capacity. Discs are 1.2 millimetres (0.047 in) thick, with a 15 millimetres (0.59 in) center hole. The size of the hole was chosen by Joop Sinjou and based on a Dutch 10-cent coin: a <a href="Dubbeltje" title="Dubbeltje">dubbeltje</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philips/Sony patented the physical dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The official Philips history says the capacity was specified by Sony executive <a href="Norio_Ohga" title="Norio Ohga">Norio Ohga</a> to be able to contain the entirety of <a href="Beethoven's_Ninth_Symphony" class="mw-redirect" title="Beethoven's Ninth Symphony">Beethoven's Ninth Symphony</a> on one disc.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohgaobituary_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohgaobituary-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

According to Philips chief engineer <a href="Kees_Immink" class="mw-redirect" title="Kees Immink">Kees Immink</a>, this is a myth,<sup id="cite_ref-Imminknature_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imminknature-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the <a href="Eight-to-fourteen_modulation" title="Eight-to-fourteen modulation">EFM</a> code format had not yet been decided in December 1979, when the 120 mm size was adopted. The adoption of EFM in June 1980 allowed 30 percent more playing time that would have resulted in 97 minutes for 120 mm diameter or 74 minutes for a disc as small as 100 millimetres (3.9 in). Instead, the information density was lowered by 30 percent to keep the playing time at 74 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-Immink2_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Immink2-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 120 mm diameter has been adopted by subsequent formats, including <a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">Super Audio CD</a>, <a href="DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a>, <a href="HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</a>, and <a href="Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a> Disc. The 80-millimetre (3.1 in) diameter discs ("<a href="Mini_CD" title="Mini CD">Mini CDs</a>") can hold up to 24 minutes of music or 210 MiB.

</p>

<th>Physical size

</th>

<th>Audio capacity

</th>

<th>CD-ROM data capacity

</th>

<th>Definition

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Standard size

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Mini-CD size

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Business_card" title="Business card">Business card</a> size

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>SHM-CD</b> (short for <i>Super High Material Compact Disc</i>) is a variant of the Compact Disc, which replaces the <a href="Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonate</a> base with a proprietary material. This material was created during joint research by <a href="Universal_Music_Japan" title="Universal Music Japan">Universal Music Japan</a> and <a href="JVC" title="JVC">JVC</a> into manufacturing high-clarity <a href="Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid-crystal displays</a>.

</p><p>SHM-CDs are fully compatible with all CD players since the difference in light refraction is not detected as an error. JVC claims that the greater fluidity and clarity of the material used for SHM-CDs results in a higher reading accuracy and improved sound quality.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, since the CD-Audio format contains inherent <a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio#Data_encoding" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">error correction</a>, it is unclear whether a reduction in read errors would be great enough to produce an improved output.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Logical_format">Logical format</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Audio_CD">Audio CD</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio</a></div>

<p>The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a document produced in 1980 by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The document is known colloquially as the <i>Red Book</i> <a href="CD-DA" class="mw-redirect" title="CD-DA">CD-DA</a> after the color of its cover. The format is a two-channel 16-bit <a href="PCM" class="mw-redirect" title="PCM">PCM</a> encoding at a <a href="44.1_kHz" class="mw-redirect" title="44.1 kHz">44.1 kHz</a> <a href="Sampling_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sampling rate">sampling rate</a> per channel. <a href="Four-channel_Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-channel Compact Disc Digital Audio">Four-channel sound</a> was to be an allowable option within the <i>Red Book</i> format, but has never been implemented. <a href="Monaural" class="mw-redirect" title="Monaural">Monaural</a> audio has no existing standard on a <i>Red Book</i> CD; thus, the mono source material is usually presented as two identical channels in a standard <i>Red Book</i> stereo track (i.e., <a href="Mono_sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Mono sound">mirrored mono</a>); an <a href="MP3_CD" class="mw-redirect" title="MP3 CD">MP3 CD</a>, can have audio file formats with mono sound.

</p><p><a href="CD-Text" title="CD-Text">CD-Text</a> is an extension of the <i>Red Book</i> specification for an audio CD that allows for the storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the <a href="Optical_disc_authoring" title="Optical disc authoring">lead-in area</a> of the CD, where there are roughly five kilobytes of space available or in the <a href="Subcode" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcode">subcode</a> channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.

</p><p><a href="Compact_Disc_%2B_Graphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc + Graphics">Compact Disc + Graphics</a> is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc. The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special CD+G player, it can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD+G player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for <a href="Karaoke" title="Karaoke">karaoke</a> performers to sing along with. The CD+G format takes advantage of the channels R through W. These six bits store the graphics information.

</p><p><a href="CD_%2B_Extended_Graphics" class="mw-redirect" title="CD + Extended Graphics">CD + Extended Graphics</a> (CD+EG, also known as CD+XG) is an improved variant of the <a href="#CD_+_Graphics">Compact Disc + Graphics</a> (CD+G) format. Like CD+G, CD+EG uses basic CD-ROM features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played. This extra data is stored in subcode channels R-W. Very few CD+EG discs have been published.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Super_Audio_CD">Super Audio CD</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">Super Audio CD</a></div>

<p>Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution, read-only <a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical</a> <a href="Audio_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio storage">audio disc</a> format that was designed to provide <a href="High_fidelity" title="High fidelity">higher-fidelity</a> digital audio reproduction than the <i>Red Book</i>. Introduced in 1999, it was developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the <i>Red Book</i>. SACD was in a <a href="Format_war" title="Format war">format war</a> with <a href="DVD-Audio" title="DVD-Audio">DVD-Audio</a>, but neither has replaced audio CDs. The SACD standard is referred to as the <i>Scarlet Book</i> standard.

</p><p>Titles in the SACD format can be issued as hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward compatible.

</p>

<p>CD-<a href="MIDI" title="MIDI">MIDI</a> is a format used to store music-performance data, which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio. Hence, unlike the original <i>Red Book</i> CD-DA, these recordings are not digitally sampled audio recordings. The CD-MIDI format is defined as an extension of the original <i>Red Book</i>.

</p>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a></div>

<p>For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio. In 1988, the <i>Yellow Book</i> <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data <a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">computer data storage</a> medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Video_CD">Video CD</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Video_CD" title="Video CD">Video CD</a></div>

<p>Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern <a href="DVD-Video" title="DVD-Video">DVD-Video</a> players, personal computers, and some video game consoles. The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, <a href="Panasonic" title="Panasonic">Matsushita</a>, and <a href="JVC" title="JVC">JVC</a> and is referred to as the <i>White Book</i> standard.

</p><p>Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to <a href="VHS" title="VHS">VHS</a> video. Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be of lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise and does not deteriorate further with each use. 352×240 (or <a href="Source_Input_Format" title="Source Input Format">SIF</a>) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical and half the horizontal resolution of the NTSC video. 352×288 is a similarly one-quarter PAL/SECAM resolution. This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Super_Video_CD">Super Video CD</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Super_Video_CD" title="Super Video CD">Super Video CD</a></div>

<p>Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality.

</p><p>SVCD has two-thirds the <a href="Display_resolution" title="Display resolution">resolution</a> of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD-R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard-quality SVCD-format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, to accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring a significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play a video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 <a href="Kilobit" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilobit">kilobits</a> per second.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photo_CD">Photo CD</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Photo_CD" title="Photo CD">Photo CD</a></div>

<p>Photo CD is a system designed by <a href="Kodak" title="Kodak">Kodak</a> for digitizing and storing photos on a CD. Launched in 1992, the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high-quality images, scanned prints, and slides using special proprietary encoding. Photo CDs are defined in the <i>Beige Book</i> and conform to the <a href="CD-ROM_XA" class="mw-redirect" title="CD-ROM XA">CD-ROM XA</a> and CD-i Bridge specifications as well. They are intended to play on CD-i players, Photo CD players, and any computer with suitable software (irrespective of <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>). The images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine. This format is not to be confused with Kodak <a href="Picture_CD" title="Picture CD">Picture CD</a>, which is a consumer product in CD-ROM format.

</p>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Philips_CD-i" class="mw-redirect" title="Philips CD-i">Philips CD-i</a></div>

<p>The Philips <i><a href="Green_Book_(CD_standard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Book (CD standard)">Green Book</a></i> specifies a standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for <a href="CD-i" title="CD-i">CD-i</a> players (1993). CD-i discs can contain audio tracks that can be played on regular <a href="CD_player" title="CD player">CD players</a>, but CD-i discs are not compatible with most <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> drives and software. The <a href="CD-i_Ready" title="CD-i Ready">CD-i Ready</a> specification was later created to improve compatibility with audio CD players, and the <a href="CD-i_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="CD-i Bridge">CD-i Bridge</a> specification was added to create CD-i-compatible discs that can be accessed by regular CD-ROM drives.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CD-i_Ready">CD-i Ready</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="CD-i_Ready" title="CD-i Ready">CD-i Ready</a></div>

<p>Philips defined a format similar to CD-i called <a href="CD-i_Ready" title="CD-i Ready">CD-i Ready</a>, which puts CD-i software and data into the <a href="Pregap#Computer_data_in_pregap" title="Pregap">pregap</a> of track 1. This format was supposed to be more compatible with older audio CD players.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enhanced_Music_CD_(CD+)">Enhanced Music CD (CD+)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Blue_Book_(CD_standard)" title="Blue Book (CD standard)">Blue Book (CD standard)</a></div>

<p>Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD Extra or CD Plus, is a format that combines <a href="CD-DA" class="mw-redirect" title="CD-DA">audio tracks</a> and <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">data tracks</a> on the same disc by putting audio tracks in a first <a href="Session_(CD)" class="mw-redirect" title="Session (CD)">session</a> and data in a second session. It was developed by Philips and Sony, and it is defined in the <i><a href="Blue_Book_(CD_standard)" title="Blue Book (CD standard)">Blue Book</a></i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VinylDisc">VinylDisc</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="VinylDisc" title="VinylDisc">VinylDisc</a></div>

<p>VinylDisc is the hybrid of a standard audio CD and the <a href="Gramophone_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Gramophone record">vinyl record</a>. The vinyl layer on the disc's label side can hold approximately three minutes of music.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacture,_cost,_and_pricing">Manufacture, cost, and pricing</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Compact_Disc_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc manufacturing">Compact Disc manufacturing</a></div>

<p>In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD. The wholesale cost of CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, while the typical retail price of a prerecorded music CD was $16.98.<sup id="cite_ref-cd_costs_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cd_costs-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average, the store received 35 percent of the retail price, the record company 27 percent, the artist 16 percent, the manufacturer 13 percent, and the distributor 9 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-cd_costs_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cd_costs-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="8-track_cartridges" class="mw-redirect" title="8-track cartridges">8-track cartridges</a>, <a href="Compact_cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact cassette">compact cassettes</a>, and CDs were introduced, each was marketed at a higher price than the format they succeeded, even though the cost to produce the media was reduced. This was done because the perceived value increased. This continued from <a href="Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">phonograph records</a> to CDs, but was broken when <a href="Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> marketed MP3s for $0.99, and albums for $9.99. The incremental cost, though, to produce an MP3 is negligible.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writable_compact_discs">Writable compact discs</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recordable_CD">Recordable CD</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-R</a></div>

<p>Recordable Compact Discs, <a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-Rs</a>, are injection-molded with a blank data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated. The write laser of the <a href="CD_recorder" class="mw-redirect" title="CD recorder">CD recorder</a> changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard <a href="CD_player" title="CD player">CD player</a> to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. CD-Rs follow the <i>Orange Book</i> standard.

</p><p>CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time, the dye's physical characteristics may change causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods. Errors can be predicted using <a href="Optical_disc#Surface_error_scanning" title="Optical disc">surface error scanning</a>. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-AutoMR-14_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AutoMR-14-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AutoMR-15_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AutoMR-15-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This failure is known as <a href="Disc_rot" title="Disc rot">disc rot</a>, for which there are several, mostly environmental, reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (<a href="Serial_Copy_Management_System" title="Serial Copy Management System">Serial Copy Management System</a>), an early form of <a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (<a href="Audio_Home_Recording_Act" title="Audio Home Recording Act">Audio Home Recording Act</a>). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to lower production volume and a 3 percent <a href="Audio_Home_Recording_Act#AHRA_royalties" title="Audio Home Recording Act">AHRA royalty</a> used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.<sup id="cite_ref-McFadden_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McFadden-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>High-capacity recordable CD is a higher-density recording format that can hold 20% more data than conventional discs.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The higher capacity is incompatible with some recorders and recording software.<sup id="cite_ref-cdrfaq_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdrfaq-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ReWritable_CD">ReWritable CD</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a></div>

<p><a href="CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a> is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser, in this case, is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand-alone <a href="DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a> players can. CD-RWs follow the <i>Orange Book</i> standard.

</p><p>The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which will not (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use the <a href="Serial_Copy_Management_System" title="Serial Copy Management System">Serial Copy Management System</a> (SCMS), an early form of <a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> (DRM), to conform to the United States' <a href="Audio_Home_Recording_Act" title="Audio Home Recording Act">Audio Home Recording Act</a> (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 percent <a href="Audio_Home_Recording_Act#AHRA_royalties" title="Audio Home Recording Act">AHRA royalty</a> used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.<sup id="cite_ref-McFadden_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McFadden-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Copy_protection">Copy protection</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Compact_Disc_and_DVD_copy_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc and DVD copy protection">Compact Disc and DVD copy protection</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Sony_BMG_copy_protection_rootkit_scandal" title="Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal">Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal</a></div>

<p>The <i>Red Book</i> audio specification, except for a simple <i>anti-copy</i> statement in the subcode, does not include any <a href="Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">copy protection</a> mechanism. Known at least as early as 2001,<sup id="cite_ref-BadCDs_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BadCDs-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attempts were made by record companies to market <i>copy-protected</i> non-standard compact discs, which cannot be <a href="Ripping" title="Ripping">ripped</a>, or copied, to hard drives or easily converted to other formats (like <a href="FLAC" title="FLAC">FLAC</a>, <a href="MP3" title="MP3">MP3</a> or <a href="Vorbis" title="Vorbis">Vorbis</a>). One major drawback to these copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives or some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked <i>Compact Disc Digital Audio</i> logo because they violate the <i>Red Book</i> specifications. Numerous copy-protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free, software, or even by simply turning off automatic <a href="AutoPlay" title="AutoPlay">AutoPlay</a> to prevent the running of the DRM <a href="Executable" title="Executable">executable</a> program.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_popular_optical_data-storage_systems" title="Comparison of popular optical data-storage systems">Comparison of popular optical data-storage systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_packaging" title="Optical disc packaging">Optical disc packaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Extended_Resolution_Compact_Disc" title="Extended Resolution Compact Disc">Extended Resolution Compact Disc</a></li>

<li><a href="High_Definition_Compatible_Digital" title="High Definition Compatible Digital">High Definition Compatible Digital</a> – Proprietary backward-compatible CD audio format</li>

<li><a href="Compact_disc_bronzing" title="Compact disc bronzing">Compact disc bronzing</a> – Type of compact disc corrosion</li>

<li><a href="DualDisc" title="DualDisc">DualDisc</a> – Double-sided optical disc</li>

<li><a href="Hidden_track" title="Hidden track">Hidden track</a> – Music not detectable by casual listeners</li>

<li><a href="SPARS_code" title="SPARS code">SPARS code</a> – Classification system for commercial compact disc releases</li>

<li><a href="List_of_optical_disc_manufacturers" title="List of optical disc manufacturers">List of optical disc manufacturers</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/3885">"IEC 60908:1999 | IEC Webstore"</a>. <i>webstore.iec.ch</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160506194944/https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/3885">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-cd_costs-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cd_costs_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cd_costs_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNeil_Strauss1995" class="citation news cs1">Neil Strauss (5 July 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/05/arts/pennies-that-add-up-to-16.98-why-cd-s-cost-so-much.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm">"Pennies That Add Up to $16.98: Why CD's Cost So Much – New York Times"</a>. <i><a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130811000713/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/05/arts/pennies-that-add-up-to-16.98-why-cd-s-cost-so-much.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHarmon2003" class="citation news cs1">Harmon, Amy (12 October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/12/arts/music-what-price-music.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm">"MUSIC; What Price Music?"</a>. <i><a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512175059/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/12/arts/music-what-price-music.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blankmediaprinting.com/blog-article/cost-gigabyte-popular-data-storage-types-infographic/">"Cost Per Gigabyte of Popular Data Storage - Infographic"</a>. <i>Blank Media Printing</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160417144636/https://www.blankmediaprinting.com/blog-article/cost-gigabyte-popular-data-storage-types-infographic">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AutoMR-14-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AutoMR-14_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070214195603/http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/CD-Recordable-discs-unreadable-in-less-than-two-years.html">"CD-R Unreadable in Less Than Two Years"</a>. cdfreaks.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/CD-Recordable-discs-unreadable-in-less-than-two-years.html">the original</a> on 14 February 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AutoMR-15-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AutoMR-15_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050204065340/http://www.pc-active.nl/toonArtikel.asp?artikelID=508">"CD-R ROT"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pc-active.nl/toonArtikel.asp?artikelID=508">the original</a> on 4 February 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/sec5.html">"5. Conditions That Affect CDs and DVDs – Council on Library and Information Resources"</a>. <i>clir.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160915012213/https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/sec5.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-McFadden-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McFadden_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McFadden_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAndy_McFadden2007" class="citation web cs1">Andy McFadden (8 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdrfaq.org/">"CD-Recordable FAQ"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070920211018/http://www.cdrfaq.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2007</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa7.htm">"Understanding CD-R & CD-RW"</a>. Osta.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130801123221/http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa7.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-cdrfaq-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cdrfaq_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdrfaq.org/faq03.html">"CD-Recordable FAQ – Section 3"</a>. 9 January 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131118040105/http://www.cdrfaq.org/faq03.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2013</span>. <q>Small quantities of 90-minute and 99-minute blanks have appeared [...] Indications are that many recorders and some software don't work with the longer discs.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-BadCDs-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BadCDs_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCampaign_For_Digital_Rights2001" class="citation web cs1">Campaign For Digital Rights (5 December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011205101807/http://uk.eurorights.org/issues/cd/bad/">"Copy Protected CDs"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uk.eurorights.org/issues/cd/bad/">the original</a> on 5 December 2001.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Ecma_International" title="Ecma International">Ecma International</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-130/"><i>Standard ECMA-130: Data Interchange on Read-only 120 mm Optical Data Disks (CD-ROM)</i></a>, 2nd edition (June 1996).</li>

<li>Pohlmann, Kenneth C. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/compactdischandb0000pohl"><i>The Compact Disc Handbook</i></a>. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-89579-300-8</bdi>.</li>

<li>Peek, Hans et al. (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/engineering/electronics/book/978-1-4020-9552-8"><i>Origins and Successors of the Compact Disc</i></a>. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4020-9552-8</bdi>.</li>

<li>Peek, Hans B., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philips.com/c-dam/corporate/research/technologies/cd/The-Emergence-of-the-Compact-Disc_v2.pdf"><i>The emergence of the compact disc</i></a>, IEEE Communications Magazine, Jan. 2010, pp. 10–17.</li>

<li><a href="Heitaro_Nakajima" title="Heitaro Nakajima">Nakajima, Heitaro</a>; Ogawa, Hiroshi (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9G9Nu9n0DJQC"><i>Compact Disc Technology</i></a>, Tokyo, Ohmsha Ltd. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>4-274-03347-3</bdi>.</li>

<li>Barry, Robert (2020). <i>Compact Disc (Object Lessons)</i>. New York: Bloomsbury. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5013-4851-8</bdi>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The world's first CD-R was made by the Japanese firm <a href="Taiyo_Yuden" title="Taiyo Yuden">Taiyo Yuden</a> Co., Ltd. in 1988 as part of the joint Philips-Sony development effort.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to:<br>

<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc" class="extiw external" title="commons:Compact disc"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Compact disc</span></a> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Compact_discs" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Compact discs">category</a>)</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut_40U0t9pU">Video</a> How Compact Discs are Manufactured</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdrfaq.org/">CD-Recordable FAQ</a> Exhaustive basics on CD-Recordable's</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20080129201342/http://www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html">Philips history of the CD (cache)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121216094847/http://www.ip.philips.com/licensing/licensingprogramshistory/history_cdplayer_joint.html">Patent History (CD Player)</a> – published by <a href="Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> in 2005</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121206014421/http://www.ip.philips.com/licensing/licensingprogramshistory/history_cddisc_joint.html">Patent History CD Disc</a> – published by <a href="Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> in 2003</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081220113637/http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-08.html">Sony History, Chapter 8, This is the replacement of Gramophone record ! (第8章レコードに代わるものはこれだ)</a> – <a href="Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> website in Japanese</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.soundfountain.com/amb/cd25years.html">Popularized History on Soundfountain</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fieldday.ie/40-years-of-the-compact-disc/">A Media History of the Compact Disc</a> (1-hour podcast interview)</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Compact_disc436" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Compact_disc436" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<ul><li>Orange Book</li></ul></li>

<ul><li>Yellow Book</li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Green_Book_(CD_standard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Book (CD standard)">Green Book</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="CD%2BG" title="CD+G">CD+G</a> (Karaoke)</li>

<li><a href="Mixed_Mode_CD" title="Mixed Mode CD">Mixed Mode CD</a></li>

<li><a href="Photo_CD" title="Photo CD">Photo CD</a>

<ul><li>Beige Book</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shaped_compact_disc" title="Shaped compact disc">shaped CD</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bootable_business_card" title="Bootable business card">business card CD</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="White_Book_(CD_standard)" title="White Book (CD standard)">White Book</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rainbow_Books" title="Rainbow Books">Rainbow Books</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_authoring" title="Optical disc authoring">CD authoring</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_authoring" title="Optical disc authoring">CD burning</a></li>

<li><a href="Compact_Disc_and_DVD_copy_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc and DVD copy protection">CD copy protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Disk_image#Uses" title="Disk image">CD emulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Compact_Disc_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc manufacturing">CD manufacturing</a></li>

<li><a href="CD_ripper" title="CD ripper">CD ripping</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Compact_disc_bronzing" title="Compact disc bronzing">CD bronzing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Compact_Disc_subcode" title="Compact Disc subcode">CD subcode</a></li>

<li><a href="C2_error" title="C2 error">C2 error</a></li>

<li><a href="CD-i_Ready" title="CD-i Ready">CD-i Ready</a></li>

<li><a href="El_Torito_(CD-ROM_standard)" class="mw-redirect" title="El Torito (CD-ROM standard)">El Torito</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Joliet_(file_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joliet (file system)">Joliet</a></li>

<li><a href="Romeo_file_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Romeo file system">Romeo</a></li>

<li><a href="Rock_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock Ridge">Rock Ridge</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hardware/software/content</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Optical_disc_drive" title="Optical disc drive">CD drive</a></li>

<li><a href="CD_player" title="CD player">CD player</a>

<ul><li><a href="Portable_CD_player" title="Portable CD player">Portable CD player</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc_drive" title="Optical disc drive">CD recorder</a></li>

<li><a href="CD_ripper" title="CD ripper">CD ripper</a></li>

<li><a href="CD_single" title="CD single">CD single</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mini_CD_single" class="mw-redirect" title="Mini CD single">Mini CD single</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Court cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Orange-Book-Standard" title="Orange-Book-Standard">Orange-Book-Standard</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Compact_Disc_and_DVD_copy_protection_schemes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Compact Disc and DVD copy protection schemes">CD copy protection schemes</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_compact_disc_player_manufacturers" title="List of compact disc player manufacturers">CD player manufacturers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_optical_disc_authoring_software" title="List of optical disc authoring software">Optical disc authoring software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants based on CD</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="5.1_Music_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="5.1 Music Disc">5.1 Music Disc</a></li>

<li><a href="ATRAC_CD" title="ATRAC CD">ATRAC CD</a></li>

<li><a href="CD_Video" title="CD Video">CD Video</a>

<ul><li><a href="Video_Single_Disc" title="Video Single Disc">Video Single Disc</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li>Purple Book</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="DualDisc" title="DualDisc">DualDisc</a></li>

<li><a href="DVD-Audio" title="DVD-Audio">Hybrid DVD-Audio</a></li>

<li><a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">Hybrid SACD</a>

<ul><li>Scarlet Book</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="MovieCD" title="MovieCD">MovieCD</a></li>

<li><a href="Picture_CD" title="Picture CD">Picture CD</a></li>

<li><a href="VideoNow" title="VideoNow">VideoNow</a></li>

<li><a href="VinylDisc" title="VinylDisc">VinylDisc</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a></li>

<li><a href="MiniDisc" title="MiniDisc">MiniDisc</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Compact_discs" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Compact discs">Commons</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/en:CD" class="extiw external" title="wikt:en:CD">Wiktionary</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_audio_recording_formats159" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physical_audio_recording_formats159" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physical <a href="Audio_recording_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio recording format">audio recording formats</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Music_engraving" title="Music engraving">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Music_box#Evolving_box_production" title="Music box">Music box cylinder or disc</a> (9th century)</li>

<li><a href="Cuckoo_clock#First_modern_cuckoo_clocks" title="Cuckoo clock">Mechanical cuckoo</a> (early 17th century)</li>

<li><a href="Punched_card" title="Punched card">Punched card</a> (1881)</li>

<li><a href="Music_roll" title="Music roll">Music roll</a> (1883)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grooved surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phonautograph" title="Phonautograph">Phonautogram</a> (1857)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grooved <a href="Phonograph_cylinder" title="Phonograph cylinder">cylinder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phonograph_cylinder#Early_development" title="Phonograph cylinder">Phonograph cylinder</a> (1877)</li>

<li><a href="Graphophone" title="Graphophone">Graphophone</a>/<a href="Dictaphone" title="Dictaphone">Dictaphone cylinder</a> (1887)</li>

<li><a href="Phonograph_cylinder#Early_development" title="Phonograph cylinder">Perfected phonograph</a>/<a href="Edison_Records#Mass-produced_cylinders" title="Edison Records">Ediphone</a> (1888)</li>

<li><a href="Path%C3%A9_Records#Pathé_cylinders_and_discs" title="Pathé Records">Salon cylinder</a> (1890s)</li>

<li><a href="Path%C3%A9_Records#Pathé_cylinders_and_discs" title="Pathé Records">Stentor cylinder</a> (1890s)</li>

<li><a href="Path%C3%A9_Records#Pathé_cylinders_and_discs" title="Pathé Records">Le Céleste cylinder</a> (1890s)</li>

<li><a href="Edison_Records#Mass-produced_cylinders" title="Edison Records">Gold moulded record</a> (1902)</li>

<li><a href="Indestructible_Record_Company" title="Indestructible Record Company">Indestructible record</a> (1907)</li>

<li><a href="Edison_Records#Mass-produced_cylinders" title="Edison Records">Amberol record</a> (1908)</li>

<li><a href="Blue_Amberol_Records" title="Blue Amberol Records">Blue Amberol record</a> (1912)</li>

<li><a href="Path%C3%A9_Records#Pathé_cylinders_and_discs" title="Pathé Records">Paradis cylinder</a> (1913)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grooved disc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">Phonograph record</a> (1889)</li>

<li><a href="Path%C3%A9_Records#Pathé_cylinders_and_discs" title="Pathé Records">Pathé disc</a> (1905)</li>

<li><a href="Edison_Disc_Record" title="Edison Disc Record">Diamond disc</a> (1912)</li>

<li><a href="Path%C3%A9_Records#Pathé_cylinders_and_discs" title="Pathé Records">Pathé Actuelle</a> (1920)</li>

<li>Edison Voicewriter (late 1940s)</li>

<li><a href="SoundScriber" title="SoundScriber">SoundScriber</a> (1945)</li>

<li><a href="Gray_Audograph" title="Gray Audograph">Audograph</a> (1945)</li>

<li><a href="Highway_Hi-Fi" title="Highway Hi-Fi">Highway Hi-Fi</a> (1956)</li>

<li>Bandai 8ban (2004)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grooved tape</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tefifon#1930s" title="Tefifon">Tefiphon/Teficord (early 1930s), Tefifon</a></li>

<li><a href="Dictabelt" title="Dictabelt">Dictabelt</a> (1947)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sound-on-film" title="Sound-on-film">Sound-on-film</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phonofilm" title="Phonofilm">Phonofilm</a> (1919)</li>

<li><a href="Tri-Ergon" title="Tri-Ergon">Tri-Ergon</a> (1922)</li>

<li><a href="Movietone_sound_system" title="Movietone sound system">Movietone</a> (1926)</li>

<li><a href="RCA_Photophone" title="RCA Photophone">Photophone</a> (1929)</li>

<li><a href="Fantasound" title="Fantasound">Fantasound</a> (1940)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Loose magnetic <a href="Wire" title="Wire">wire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wire_recording" title="Wire recording">Wire recording</a> (1898)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magnetic <a href="Wire" title="Wire">wire</a> cartridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Lorenz Textophon (1942)</li>

<li>Cosmos Industries MX-303A/ANQ-1 (1944)</li>

<li>Peirce 265B (1951)</li>

<li>Peirce 330/360 (1951)</li>

<li>Protona Minifon P51 (1951)</li>

<li>Protona Minifon P55 (1955)</li>

<li>Protona Minifon special (1961)</li>

<li>Crouzet-Jaeger cartridge (1962)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magnetic surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Magnetic_stripe_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic stripe card">Magnetic stripe card</a> (1900)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Telefunken magnetic disc (1945)</li>

<li>Thermionic Products Recordon (1948)</li>

<li>Record Maker Pye (1953)</li>

<li><a href="Ricoh_Synchrofax" title="Ricoh Synchrofax">Synchrofax</a> (1959)</li>

<li><a href="Video_High_Density" title="Video High Density">Audio High Density</a> (1978)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Reel-to-reel_audio_tape_recording" title="Reel-to-reel audio tape recording">Loose (reel-to-reel)</a> <a href="Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ludwig_Blattner#Career" title="Ludwig Blattner">Blattnerphone</a> (1928)</li>

<li><a href="Magnetophon" title="Magnetophon">Magnetophon</a> (1935)</li>

<li><a href="Audio_tape_specifications#Studio_tape_formats" title="Audio tape specifications">Fullcoat magfilm</a> (1953)</li>

<li><a href="Audio_tape_specifications#Studio_tape_formats" title="Audio tape specifications">Stripe magfilm</a> (1953)</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">Magnetic tape</a> cartridge & cassette</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Loewe_(electronics)#Company_history" title="Loewe (electronics)">Optaphon</a> (1951)</li>

<li>Cousino Echo-matic (1952)</li>

<li>Mohawk Message repeater cartridge (1953)</li>

<li><a href="Grundig_Business_Systems#History" title="Grundig Business Systems">Stenorette</a> (1954)</li>

<li>Mohawk Midgetape RL (1955)</li>

<li>Dictaphone Dictet (1957)</li>

<li>Rediffusion Reditune (1957)</li>

<li>Saba Sabafon (1958)</li>

<li><a href="RCA_tape_cartridge" title="RCA tape cartridge">RCA tape cartridge</a> (1958)</li>

<li>Philips EL 3581 (1958)</li>

<li>Protona Attaché (1959)</li>

<li><a href="Fidelipac" title="Fidelipac">Fidelipac</a> (1959)</li>

<li>Cousino MR-9000 (1960)</li>

<li>IBM Magnabelt (1961)</li>

<li>Dictaphone Travel master (1961)</li>

<li>Nippon Electronic Vity cassette (1961)</li>

<li>Grundig Cassette LFH 0084 (1962)</li>

<li>Orrtronic Tapette (1962)</li>

<li><a href="Scotch_tape#Trade_names" title="Scotch tape">3M Scotch</a> (1962)</li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Cousino" title="Bernard Cousino">Cousino Echo-matic II</a> (1962)</li>

<li><a href="Stereo-Pak" title="Stereo-Pak">Stereo-Pak</a> (1962)</li>

<li>Philips EL 3583 (1963)</li>

<li><a href="Compact_Cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Cassette">Compact Cassette</a> (1963)</li>

<li>Grundig En3 (1964)</li>

<li><a href="Sabamobil" title="Sabamobil">Sabamobil</a> (1964)</li>

<li><a href="8-track_cartridge" title="8-track cartridge">8-track</a> (1964)</li>

<li><a href="Sanyo_Micro_Pack_35" title="Sanyo Micro Pack 35">Micro pack 35</a> (1964)</li>

<li>Assmann-Stuzzi Memocord (1965)</li>

<li><a href="Cantata_700" title="Cantata 700">Cantata 700</a> (1965)</li>

<li><a href="DC-International" title="DC-International">DC-International</a> (1965)</li>

<li>Nippon Electronic Memo-call (1965)</li>

<li><a href="PlayTape" title="PlayTape">PlayTape</a> (1966)</li>

<li>Muntz Stereo Mini-twin (1967)</li>

<li>Grundig DeJ614 (1968)</li>

<li><a href="Microcassette" title="Microcassette">Microcassette</a> (1969)</li>

<li>Sanyo tape cartridge (1969)</li>

<li><a href="HiPac" title="HiPac">HiPac</a> (1971)</li>

<li><a href="Steno-Cassette" title="Steno-Cassette">Steno-Cassette</a> (1971)</li>

<li><a href="Grundig_Business_Systems#History" title="Grundig Business Systems">Stenorette DL</a> (1972)</li>

<li>Capitol Records Audiopak (1972)</li>

<li><a href="Elcaset" title="Elcaset">Elcaset</a> (1976)</li>

<li>Bandai micro cartridge (late 1980s)</li>

<li><a href="Picocassette" title="Picocassette">Picocassette</a> (1985)</li>

<li><a href="Pocket_Rockers" title="Pocket Rockers">Pocket Rockers</a> (1988)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Analog-to-digital_converter" title="Analog-to-digital converter">Analog-to-digital converter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Soundstream#Digital_Tape_Recorder" title="Soundstream">Soundstream</a> (1976)</li>

<li><a href="ProDigi" title="ProDigi">X80/ProDigi</a> (1980)</li>

<li><a href="PCM_adaptor" title="PCM adaptor">PCM adaptor</a> (1982)</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Digital_recording" title="Digital recording">Digital</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">Magnetic tape</a> cartridge & cassette</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_Audio_Tape" title="Digital Audio Tape">Digital Audio Tape</a> (1987)</li>

<li><a href="Digital_Compact_Cassette" title="Digital Compact Cassette">Digital Compact Cassette</a> (1992)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sound-on-film" title="Sound-on-film">Sound-on-film</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Optical_disc_recording_technologies" title="Optical disc recording technologies">Optical disc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio</a> (1982)</li>

<li>Philips CD-BGM (1989)</li>

<li><a href="MiniDisc" title="MiniDisc">MiniDisc</a> (1992)</li>

<li><a href="Super_Audio_CD" title="Super Audio CD">Super Audio CD</a> (1999)</li>

<li><a href="DVD-Audio" title="DVD-Audio">DVD-Audio</a> (2000)</li>

<li><a href="DataPlay" title="DataPlay">DataPlay</a> (2002)</li>

<li><a href="DualDisc" title="DualDisc">DualDisc</a> (2004)</li>

<li><a href="BD-Audio" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-Audio">BD-Audio</a> (2008)</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Solid-state_storage" title="Solid-state storage">Electronic circuit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sound_chip" title="Sound chip">Sound chip</a> (late 1970s)</li>

<li><a href="MP3_player" class="mw-redirect" title="MP3 player">MP3 player</a> (1996)</li>

<li><a href="HitClips" title="HitClips">HitClips</a> (2000)</li>

<li>Yaboom Box (1999)</li>

<li>Takara E-kara (2001)</li>

<li>Toymax VJ Starz (2002)</li>

<li><a href="USB_flash_drive#Media_storage_and_marketing" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a> (2004)</li>

<li><a href="Secure_Digital" class="mw-redirect" title="Secure Digital">MicroSD</a> (2007)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hybrid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mini-cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Mini-cassette">Mini-cassette</a> (1967)</li>

<li><a href="U-matic" title="U-matic">U-matic</a> (1971)</li>

<li>Pioneer Artists Compact LaserDisc (1986)</li>

<li><a href="CD_Video" title="CD Video">CD Video</a> (1987)</li>

<li><a href="Vinyl_emulation_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinyl emulation software">Timecode vinyl</a> (2001)</li>

<li><a href="VinylDisc" title="VinylDisc">VinylDisc</a> (2007)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Music_technology445" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Music_technology445" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Music_technology" title="Music technology">Music technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Music_technology" title="Music technology">Music technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Music_technology_(mechanical)" title="Music technology (mechanical)">Mechanical</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_technology_(electric)" title="Music technology (electric)">Electrical</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_technology_(electronic_and_digital)" title="Music technology (electronic and digital)">Electronic and digital</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sound_recording_and_reproduction" title="Sound recording and reproduction">Sound recording</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Audio_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio channel">Audio channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixing_console" title="Mixing console">Mixing console</a></li>

<li><a href="Binaural_recording" title="Binaural recording">Binaural recording</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_audio_workstation" title="Digital audio workstation">Digital audio workstation</a> (DAW)</li>

<li><a href="Effects_unit" title="Effects unit">Effects unit</a></li>

<li><a href="Equalization_(audio)" class="mw-redirect" title="Equalization (audio)">Equalizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Headphones" title="Headphones">Headphones</a></li>

<li><a href="Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphone</a></li>

<li><a href="Microphone_preamplifier" title="Microphone preamplifier">Microphone preamplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Foldback_(sound_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foldback (sound engineering)">Monitor speaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Multitrack_recording" title="Multitrack recording">Multitrack recording</a></li>

<li><a href="Record_producer" title="Record producer">Music production</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_sequencer" title="Music sequencer">Music sequencer</a></li>

<li><a href="Outboard_gear" title="Outboard gear">Outboard gear</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Timeline_of_audio_formats" title="Timeline of audio formats">Recording media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">Phonograph record</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">Magnetic tape</a></li>

<li><a href="Compact_Cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Cassette">Compact Cassette</a></li>

<li><a href="MiniDisc" title="MiniDisc">MiniDisc</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog recording</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="8-track_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="8-track tape">8-track cartridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Amplifier" title="Amplifier">Amplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Cassette_deck" title="Cassette deck">Cassette deck</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_analog_and_digital_recording" title="Comparison of analog and digital recording">Comparison of analog and digital recording</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_musical_instrument" title="Experimental musical instrument">Experimental musical instrument</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonograph" title="Phonograph">Phonograph</a></li>

<li><a href="Player_piano" title="Player piano">Player piano</a></li>

<li><a href="Reel-to-reel_audio_tape_recording" title="Reel-to-reel audio tape recording">Reel-to-reel audio tape recording</a></li>

<li><a href="Tape_recorder" title="Tape recorder">Tape recorder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Playback transducers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">Loudspeaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Headphones" title="Headphones">Headphones</a></li>

<li><a href="Foldback_(sound_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foldback (sound engineering)">Monitor speaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_address_system" title="Public address system">PA system</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_reinforcement_system" title="Sound reinforcement system">Sound reinforcement system</a></li>

<li><a href="Speaker_enclosure" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker enclosure">Speaker enclosure</a></li>

<li><a href="Subwoofer" title="Subwoofer">Subwoofer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">Digital audio</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_recording" title="Digital recording">Digital recording</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">Digital signal processing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concert" title="Concert">Live music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mixing_console" title="Mixing console">Mixing console</a></li>

<li><a href="Bass_amplifier" title="Bass amplifier">Bass amplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_unit" title="Effects unit">Effects unit</a></li>

<li><a href="Foldback_(sound_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foldback (sound engineering)">Foldback</a></li>

<li><a href="Guitar_amplifier" title="Guitar amplifier">Guitar amplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Keyboard_amplifier" title="Keyboard amplifier">Keyboard amplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_address_system" title="Public address system">PA system</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverb_effect" title="Reverb effect">Reverb</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_reinforcement_system" title="Sound reinforcement system">Sound reinforcement system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Electronic_music" title="Electronic music">Electronic music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chiptune" title="Chiptune">Chiptune</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_bending" title="Circuit bending">Circuit bending</a></li>

<li><a href="Drum_machine" title="Drum machine">Drum machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_drums" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic drums">Electronic drums</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_musical_instrument" title="Electronic musical instrument">Electronic musical instrument</a></li>

<li><a href="MIDI_controller" title="MIDI controller">MIDI controller</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_workstation" title="Music workstation">Music workstation</a></li>

<li><a href="Sampler_(musical_instrument)" title="Sampler (musical instrument)">Sampler</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_sequencer" title="Music sequencer">Sequencer</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_module" title="Sound module">Sound module</a></li>

<li><a href="Synthesizer" title="Synthesizer">Synthesizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Theremin" title="Theremin">Theremin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software" title="Software">Software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_audio_editor" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital audio editor">Digital audio editor</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_audio_workstation" title="Digital audio workstation">Digital audio workstation</a></li>

<li><a href="GarageBand" title="GarageBand">GarageBand</a></li>

<li><a href="ProTools" class="mw-redirect" title="ProTools">ProTools</a></li>

<li><a href="Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">Scorewriter</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_effect_processor" title="Software effect processor">Software effect processor</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_sampler" class="mw-redirect" title="Software sampler">Software sampler</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_synthesizer" title="Software synthesizer">Software synthesizer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio engineer</a></li>

<li><a href="Guitar_tech" title="Guitar tech">Guitar technician</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixing_engineer" title="Mixing engineer">Mixing engineer</a></li>

<li><a href="Monitor_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Monitor engineer">Monitor engineer</a></li>

<li><a href="Piano_tuner" class="mw-redirect" title="Piano tuner">Piano tuner</a></li>

<li><a href="Record_producer" title="Record producer">Record producer</a></li>

<li><a href="Re-recording_mixer" title="Re-recording mixer">Re-recording mixer</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound designer">Sound designer</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_follower" title="Sound follower">Sound follower</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound operator">Sound operator</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_recording" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound recording">Sound recording engineer</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People and organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Audio_Engineering_Society" title="Audio Engineering Society">Audio Engineering Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Goji_Electronics" title="Goji Electronics">Goji Electronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Institute_of_Broadcast_Sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Broadcast Sound">Institute of Broadcast Sound</a></li>

<li><a href="Lejaren_Hiller" title="Lejaren Hiller">Lejaren Hiller</a></li>

<li><a href="IRCAM" title="IRCAM">IRCAM</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Mathews" title="Max Mathews">Max Mathews</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_Electronics_Library" title="Musical Electronics Library">Musical Electronics Library</a></li>

<li><a href="Professional_Lighting_and_Sound_Association" title="Professional Lighting and Sound Association">Professional Lighting and Sound Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Moog" title="Robert Moog">Robert Moog</a></li>

<li><a href="Society_of_Motion_Picture_and_Television_Engineers" title="Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers">SMPTE</a></li>

<li><a href="STEIM" title="STEIM">STEIM</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Audiophile" title="Audiophile">Audiophile</a></li>

<li><a href="High_fidelity" title="High fidelity">High fidelity</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_audio" title="Home audio">Home audio</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_cinema" title="Home cinema">Home cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_store" title="Music store">Music store</a></li>

<li><a href="Professional_audio_store" title="Professional audio store">Professional audio store</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Interfaces_for_Musical_Expression" title="New Interfaces for Musical Expression">New Interfaces for Musical Expression</a> (NIME)</li>

<li><a href="Media_control_symbols" title="Media control symbols">Symbols of control</a></li>

<li><a href="Vehicle_audio" title="Vehicle audio">Vehicle audio</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ARecord_production" title="Portal:Record production">Record production portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sony289" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sony289" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="History_of_Sony" title="History of Sony">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Masaru_Ibuka" title="Masaru Ibuka">Masaru Ibuka</a></li>

<li><a href="Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary businesses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sony#Electronics_Products_&_Solutions" title="Sony">Sony Corporation</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony#Imaging_&_Sensing_Solutions" title="Sony">Sony Semiconductor Solutions</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Entertainment" title="Sony Entertainment">Sony Entertainment</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sony_Music_Group" title="Sony Music Group">Sony Music Group</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sony_Music_Entertainment_(United_States)" title="Sony Music Entertainment (United States)">Entertainment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Music_Publishing" title="Sony Music Publishing">Publishing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Pictures" title="Sony Pictures">Sony Pictures</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Financial_Group" title="Sony Financial Group">Sony Financial Group</a>

<li><a href="Sony_Interactive_Entertainment" title="Sony Interactive Entertainment">Sony Interactive Entertainment</a>

<ul><li><a href="PlayStation" title="PlayStation">PlayStation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Music_Entertainment_Japan" title="Sony Music Entertainment Japan">Sony Music Entertainment Japan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aniplex" title="Aniplex">Aniplex</a>

<ul><li><a href="A-1_Pictures" title="A-1 Pictures">A-1 Pictures</a></li>

<li><a href="CloverWorks" title="CloverWorks">CloverWorks</a></li>

<li><a href="Hayate_Inc." title="Hayate Inc.">Hayate Inc.</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_Sony_trademarks" title="List of Sony trademarks">Technologies<br>and brands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sony_%CE%B1" title="Sony α">α (Alpha)</a></li>

<li><a href="Archival_Disc" title="Archival Disc">Archival Disc</a></li>

<li><a href="Betacam" title="Betacam">Betacam</a></li>

<li><a href="Bionz" title="Bionz">Bionz</a></li>

<li><a href="Bravia_(brand)" title="Bravia (brand)">Bravia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyber-shot" title="Cyber-shot">Cyber-shot</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Dream_Machine" title="Sony Dream Machine">Dream Machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Exmor" title="Exmor">Exmor</a></li>

<li><a href="FeliCa" title="FeliCa">FeliCa</a></li>

<li><a href="Handycam" title="Handycam">Handycam</a></li>

<li><a href="HDCAM" title="HDCAM">HDCAM/HDCAM-SR</a></li>

<li><a href="Inzone" title="Inzone">Inzone</a></li>

<li><a href="LocationFree_Player" title="LocationFree Player">LocationFree</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_Stick" title="Memory Stick">Memory Stick</a></li>

<li><a href="MiniDisc" title="MiniDisc">MiniDisc</a></li>

<li><a href="DV_(video_format)" title="DV (video format)">MiniDV</a></li>

<li><a href="MicroMV" title="MicroMV">MicroMV</a></li>

<li><a href="PlayNow_Arena" title="PlayNow Arena">PlayNow</a></li>

<li><a href="PlayStation" title="PlayStation">PlayStation</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Reader" title="Sony Reader">Reader</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_8_channel_SDDS_films" title="List of 8 channel SDDS films">8 channel films</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Entertainment_Network" title="Sony Entertainment Network">Sony Entertainment Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Tablet" title="Sony Tablet">Sony Tablet</a></li>

<li><a href="Tunnel_diode" title="Tunnel diode">Tunnel diode</a></li>

<li><a href="TransferJet" title="TransferJet">TransferJet</a></li>

<li><a href="8_mm_video_format" title="8 mm video format">Video8/Hi8</a>/<a href="Digital8" title="Digital8">Digital8</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Vision-S" title="Sony Vision-S">Vision-S</a></li>

<li><a href="Walkman" title="Walkman">Walkman</a></li>

<li><a href="XDCAM" title="XDCAM">XDCAM</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Xperia" title="Sony Xperia">Xperia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Betamax" title="Betamax">Betamax</a></li>

<li><a href="Discman" title="Discman">Discman</a></li>

<li><a href="Jumbotron" title="Jumbotron">Jumbotron</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Lissa" title="Sony Lissa">Lissa</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Mavica" title="Sony Mavica">Mavica</a></li>

<li><a href="Optiarc" title="Optiarc">Optiarc</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia_(Sony)" title="Qualia (Sony)">Qualia</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Rolly" title="Sony Rolly">Rolly</a></li>

<li><a href="Trinitron" title="Trinitron">Trinitron</a>

<ul><li><a href="FD_Trinitron/WEGA" title="FD Trinitron/WEGA">FD series</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="U-matic" title="U-matic">U-matic</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Watchman" title="Sony Watchman">Watchman</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electronics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sony_Creative_Software" title="Sony Creative Software">Sony Creative Software</a></li>

<li><a href="FeliCa" title="FeliCa">FeliCa Networks</a> (57%)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Digital_distribution" title="Digital distribution">Online distribution</a><br><a href="Content_delivery_network" title="Content delivery network">platforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="PlayStation_Network" title="PlayStation Network">PlayStation Network</a>

<ul><li><a href="PlayStation_Plus" class="mw-redirect" title="PlayStation Plus">PlayStation Plus</a></li>

<li><a href="PlayStation_Store" title="PlayStation Store">PlayStation Store</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Pictures_Core" title="Sony Pictures Core">Sony Pictures Core</a></li>

<li><a href="SonyLIV" title="SonyLIV">SonyLIV</a></li>

<li><a href="Crunchyroll" title="Crunchyroll">Crunchyroll</a></li>

<li><a href="Pure_Flix" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Flix">Great American Pure Flix</a> (joint venture with <a href="Great_American_Media" title="Great American Media">Great American Media</a>)</li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Former/Defunct18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Former/Defunct</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sony_Entertainment_Network" title="Sony Entertainment Network">Sony Entertainment Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Connect" title="Sony Connect">Sony Connect</a></li>

<li><a href="PlayNow_Arena" title="PlayNow Arena">PlayNow</a></li>

<li><a href="PlayStation_Now" title="PlayStation Now">PlayStation Now</a></li>

<li><a href="PlayStation_Video" title="PlayStation Video">PlayStation Video</a></li>

<li><a href="PlayStation_Vue" title="PlayStation Vue">PlayStation Vue</a></li>

<li><a href="Crunchyroll_EMEA#Anime_Digital_Network" title="Crunchyroll EMEA">Anime Digital Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Anime_on_Demand" title="Anime on Demand">Anime on Demand</a></li>

<li><a href="Crunchyroll_Store_Australia#AnimeLab" title="Crunchyroll Store Australia">AnimeLab</a></li>

<li><a href="Crackle_(service)" title="Crackle (service)">Crackle</a>

<ul><li><a href="The_Minisode_Network" title="The Minisode Network">Minisodes</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Funimation" title="Funimation">Funimation</a></li>

<li><a href="PressPlay" title="PressPlay">PressPlay</a></li>

<li><a href="Wakanim" title="Wakanim">Wakanim</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other businesses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="So-net" title="So-net">Sony Network Communications</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Professional_Solutions" title="Sony Professional Solutions">Sony Professional Solutions</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_Honda_Mobility" title="Sony Honda Mobility">Sony Honda Mobility</a> (50%)</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other assets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sony_Corporation_of_America" title="Sony Corporation of America">Sony Corporation of America</a> (umbrella company in the US)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_assets_owned_by_Sony" title="List of assets owned by Sony">Other subsidiaries</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_acquisitions_by_Sony" title="List of acquisitions by Sony">List of acquisitions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_libraries_owned_by_Sony" title="List of libraries owned by Sony">List of libraries</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonprofit organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Shohoku_College" title="Shohoku College">Sony Institute of Higher Education Shohoku College</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sony_Toshiba_IBM_Center_of_Competence_for_the_Cell_Processor" title="Sony Toshiba IBM Center of Competence for the Cell Processor">Sony Toshiba IBM Center of Competence for the Cell Processor</a></li>

<li><a href="Sony_timer" title="Sony timer">Sony timer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lasers281" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lasers281" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Laser" title="Laser">Lasers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_laser_articles" title="List of laser articles">List of laser articles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_laser_types" title="List of laser types">List of laser types</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_laser_applications" title="List of laser applications">List of laser applications</a></li>

<li><a href="Laser_acronyms" title="Laser acronyms">Laser acronyms</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of lasers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chemical_laser" title="Chemical laser">Chemical laser</a></li>

<li><a href="Dye_laser" title="Dye laser">Dye laser</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bubble_laser" title="Bubble laser">Bubble</a></li>

<li><a href="Liquid-crystal_laser" title="Liquid-crystal laser">Liquid-crystal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gas_laser" title="Gas laser">Gas laser</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_dioxide_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide laser">Carbon dioxide</a></li>

<li><a href="Excimer_laser" title="Excimer laser">Excimer</a></li>

<li><a href="Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser" title="Helium–neon laser">Helium–neon</a></li>

<li><a href="Nitrogen_laser" title="Nitrogen laser">Nitrogen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Free-electron_laser" title="Free-electron laser">Free-electron laser</a></li>

<li><a href="Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid-state_laser" title="Solid-state laser">Solid-state laser</a>

<li><a href="Raman_laser" title="Raman laser">Raman</a></li>

<li><a href="Ti-sapphire_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Ti-sapphire laser">Ti-sapphire</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="X-ray_laser" title="X-ray laser">X-ray laser</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Laser_science" title="Laser science">Laser physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_laser_medium" title="Active laser medium">Active laser medium</a></li>

<li><a href="Amplified_spontaneous_emission" title="Amplified spontaneous emission">Amplified spontaneous emission</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">Continuous wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Laser_ablation" title="Laser ablation">Laser ablation</a></li>

<li><a href="Laser_linewidth" title="Laser linewidth">Laser linewidth</a></li>

<li><a href="Lasing_threshold" title="Lasing threshold">Lasing threshold</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_inversion" title="Population inversion">Population inversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultrashort_pulse_laser" title="Ultrashort pulse laser">Ultrashort pulse</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laser optics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beam_expander" title="Beam expander">Beam expander</a></li>

<li><a href="Beam_homogenizer" title="Beam homogenizer">Beam homogenizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Chirped_pulse_amplification" title="Chirped pulse amplification">Chirped pulse amplification</a></li>

<li><a href="Gain-switching" title="Gain-switching">Gain-switching</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaussian_beam" title="Gaussian beam">Gaussian beam</a></li>

<li><a href="Injection_seeder" title="Injection seeder">Injection seeder</a></li>

<li><a href="Laser_beam_profiler" title="Laser beam profiler">Laser beam profiler</a></li>

<li><a href="M_squared" title="M squared">M squared</a></li>

<li><a href="Mode_locking" title="Mode locking">Mode locking</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple-prism_grating_laser_oscillator" title="Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator">Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_cavity" title="Optical cavity">Optical cavity</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_isolator" title="Optical isolator">Optical isolator</a></li>

<li><a href="Output_coupler" title="Output coupler">Output coupler</a></li>

<li><a href="Q-switching" title="Q-switching">Q-switching</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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